Knives of the American Revolution

Similar knives used during the American Revolution pre-dates the Viking Age. The word knife possibly descends from knifr, which is the Old Norse word for blade. The knife was all important to these hardy people of the north. From their craft and design, descended many of the knives that found their way all over Europe, to Anglo Saxons in Great Britain, and from there, America. Whether one was a farmer, tradesman, or gentleman land owner, all carried knives which naturally found their use in war as both a tool for utility and weapon for protection. A direct descendent to the hunting and multipurpose knives is the scramasaxe, forefather to the large, multi-task knives carried by colonial pioneers. These were later termed “Bowie Knives.”  The design of Viking knives are so similar to those commonly found in colonial America, that it is worth a short discussion on Nordic blades.

The Nordic proverb “Knívleysur maður er lívleysur maður” translates to “the knifeless man is a lifeless man.”  This was also true for Viking women, who all carried knives attached to their aprons by a small chain.  Viking warriors were so fond of their handcrafted knives and scramsaxes (longer knives but shorter than a sword) that they rarely laid them aside, even to sleep. When they died, their prized knives were usually buried with them; many of Nordic knives and scramasaxes that survive today have been found in burial mounds.

The knife was one of the first tools that not only made life easier for mankind, but could be used to defend oneself. Flint blades of the stone age followed the bronze age, where molds were cast and metal sharpened. The iron age flourished with a wide range of knives in all shapes and sizes.  With the advent of steel, fine, hardened edged knives were carried at all times for everyday use and in war.  The majority of knives have been historically all-purpose blades. Frequently a man can carry only one knife, and there has been a concentrated effort to make this knife just as useful as possible.  It performed a number of functions – help its owner defend himself against a human adversary or wild beast, skin and joint game, dig in rough ground, cut saplings, fashion implements, and shelter and even eat his food.

Nordic Knife.  There are 2 distinctive types of Viking knife, the small, basic, single edge knife that served as an everyday utility tool, and the slightly larger knife that was used for hunting, fishing and combat. Basically, the Viking knife was made of a piece of iron that was shaped into a blade and tang (the tang of a knife is the projecting shank, prong, fang, or tongue that connects the blade with the handle). Viking knife blades ranged from 3 to 4-inch blades, until there is difficulty differentiating it from a small sax (sax are large Nordic knives just shy of swords). Viking knife tangs were sometimes formed into a crude handle, but mostly a handle of bone, horn or wood with simple fittings secured to the tang.  The Viking knife was usually held in a leather sheath, which ranged from the very simple to highly decorative sheathes with metal furnishings. Knife sheathes hung from a child or man’s belt, and by a thin metal chain from a woman’s apron.

Top left: Replica of Handforged Scramasax by Arma Espona Smithcraft, Bottom left: Original scramasaxes from burial mound by Scavengeology, Right: Original Viking Knives by Scavengeology.

Scramasaxes.  The scramasax or hand sax was a smaller version of a sword-like weapon.  It was prized by those of Scandinavia, Franks and later Saxons among all the early people of northern and western Europe. They ranged in size from five or six inches to nearly sword length.  They all possessed a wide blade with a straight edge and a back that started from the hilt in a straight line and then turned towards the edge in a curve or a slant to form a sharp point. Sometimes there was a groove near the back. The handle was simple, without a guard, even though this knife was expected to serve as a weapon. The blade was sturdy and heavy enough to deliver a powerful cut. The point was sharp enough for stabbing or piercing and was also useful for picking a piece of food out of a cooking pot. As mentioned, these knives carried onto America and was from their design that we were given the popular “Bowie Knife” of the early 1800’s.

Early Knives in America.  Knives and daggers were necessary to early Americans. As they had for centuries, these useful tools provided a variety of uses: cleaning game, home chores, trading with local Native Americas, cooking-eating utensils, and fighting either settling grudges or in war.  Though there is a great variance in individual design, most can be classified into three general categories.

• Belt Knife:  Used as a tool and weapon. It is a single-edged blade designed primarily for cutting, but also capable of stabbing.  It was attached to a belt by a leather sheath.
• Dagger: Molded for fighting, it normally mounted a symmetrical tapering blade having two edges. It is most effective when thrust or stabbed as a weapon.
• Dirk: Originally it was an even-tapered blade (meaning desired degree of hardness and elasticity) similar to the dagger – the difference is that it had only sharpened edge.  By the end of the American Revolution, the term dirk began to describe a short naval side arm for both daggers or knife blades.

Utility knives.  Daggers were the choice of gentlemen.  By the 1600’s they gradually lost their importance to what was termed the civilian swords – short-edged weapon.  Daggers were only for the skilled fighter and knives became common for everyday use.  Colonials found little use to lug around swords and preferred carrying knives that filled a great need for chores on the farm. This became the utility knife of both fixed and folding blades. These knives were moderately priced and large quantities could be shipped overseas which became ideal for trading with the Native Americans. Records indicate ship cargoes with thousands of ‘long knives’ and jackknives in casks or boxes. They were mainly manufactured in England, France, Germany, and the Low Countries.

Belt Knives.  By the 1700’s, gentlemen in Europe and America wore a small sword at their side. Farmers and tradesmen continued using belt knives, however by the Revolution, many adopted the pocket knife for personal use. Further inland and throughout the frontier, the pocket knife was not used – preference given to the belt knife and some maintained the dagger.

Just as colonists evolved the European huntsman’s rifle into the Pennsylvania long rifle to meet needs of the New World, the sophisticated and specialized blades of Europe gave way in America to simpler purpose knives that could whittle, carve, skin, chop, stab, and scalp.

Top to bottom photos: Early Rifleman by Guns International, Rifleman by Worthpoint, 18th Century Rifleman by Guns International, Rifleman by Metromuseum, Butchers Knife by Woodrunner’s Diary and Keith Burgess

Riflemen Knives, also called ‘Butcher’ or ‘Scalping’ Knives.  This longer version of blade knife often reached a length of 12” or more.  It is reasoned they acquired the name ‘riflemen knife’ since they were the basic equipment of the rifleman, along with his firelock (rifle) and tomahawk.  The blade often reached a foot in length.  It was basically a butcher’s knife (hence it’s other name), having its single edge and ‘choil’ creating an off-center appearance to the blade. The choil is the notch between the cutting edge and the blade tang or ricasso (unsharpened length of blade just above the guard or handle) – it notifies you where to stop sharpening the blade.

Being long, with a single sharpened edge and a flat spine, these knives were carried by civilians who joined the American Revolution.  Like today’s military knives, they were high in carbon, which gives excellent edge retention, but since they could be brittle, it explains their longer length.  Even as a soldier’s choice for weapon of war, it was used for everything the soldier needed, whether it was opening boxes, shaving, skinning wild game, or anything else requiring a sharped blade. Simple guard and hilt mountings were usually iron, brass, pewter, or silver, and the grips were generally of wood (hardwoods such as hickory, maple, walnut, apple, or cherry), horn, bone, or antler. Most blades were imported however, some were created by local blacksmiths or fashioned from old files, saws, or swords.

Scalping Knives.  These riflemen knives, also called scalping knives, had no recognized ‘scalping’ pattern. In other words, there was no special scalping knife used to remove the scalp and skin from one’s enemy; colonists and Native Americans used his regular knife for that purpose. Traders usually sold the knife alone, the Native American fashioning the scabbard. The scabbard and knife was carried in the belt on a cord passing about the neck.  The name scalping knife did not come from removing the scalp of one’s enemy.  The term was first applied by the early fur traders to designate a certain type of knife for trade to Native Americans.  They were basically “any cheap butcher knife.”  Yet, there seems to be some evidence for a specific pattern for these trade knives.  The following description is from the notes of Alexander Mackenzie (1764 – 1820), noted explorer and the first to cross continental America to the Pacific, twelve years before Lewis and Clark. Mackenzie noted that:

“These scalpers are of the simplest pattern possible-a generally straight or very slightly curved blade 6 or 7 inches long, fairly straight and unsharpened on the top, ending in a point from which the sharpened bottom edge begins and runs along the bottom back to the grip, making a curved edge suitable for skinning and slicing. The grip is a single piece of wood split with a saw for two-thirds of its length. The short tang of the knife blade was shoved into this split and fastened by two or three rivets inserted into holes drilled from side to side. With a minimum of machine polishing, the knife was completed and ready for sale.”

Right to left: Two rifleman’s knives and Native American Scalping Knife

During the American Revolution, most firearms were supplied by government, soldiers brought their own knives.  American congress, provincial assemblies, and supply officers focused on stockpiling and issuing firearms.  Iron was needed for cannon, muskets, and rifles, therefore other weapons, such as knives and swords, or necessaries, such as cooking utensils, were provided by the soldier.  Though we have been lead to believe there was a strong gun culture in America at the start of the war, a study of probate records (recordings of property ownership) indicate that less than one fifth of farmers and merchants owned a firearm.  Muskets were the military’s main priority and often supplied by the government.  Therefore, a mixed bag of knives were used – all brought from home.

Patch Knife or Patch Cutter.  This was another variation of the rifleman’s knife.  They were smaller, a three to four-inch blade, used to cut the cloth or leather patch that wrapped around the bullet when loading.  It was normally carried in a sheath on the strap of his hunting bag or in the bag itself.  Some, when carried, were simply thrust through the belt, usually towards the front. Some recent scholars and collectors question the existence of these knives. Keith Burgess of Woodsrunner Diary reasons that with his hunting knife at his belt, legging knife, and clasp knife in his waistcoat pocket, why would he need a fourth knife?

Mr. Burgess further questions the need of such a knife. He makes a good argument that patches were not used for smoothbore firelocks, but wadding of beaver felt hat material cut to fit the bore. Check out his article Rifles, Smoothbores and Use of Wadding

Dagger.  Daggers have a very sharp point and usually two sharp edges; as a weapon for use in thrusting or stabbing.  Often these smaller knives were useful for protection, easily carried, and in warfare during hand to hand encounters with the enemy. Many cultures adorned daggers in ritual and ceremonial presentations.  Daggers and their offshoot, dirks, were ‘unofficial’ weapons of the American Revolution. Like belt knives, they didn’t follow any universal pattern.  Americans often fought without bayonets and the dagger was substituted as their weapon of choice during close combat.  This is especially true early on in the war and particular with militia.  These daggers usually had an even-tapered, double-edged blade averaging six to ten inches with a simple cross-guard and a plain hilt similar to the knife.

Scottish Dirk.  Scots came to America in large numbers just after 1700 and settled mostly in the southern colonies.  Their numbers increased after the Jacobite defeats of 1715 and 1745.  They brought the dirk which was a personal weapon carried in civilian life.  Many of these Scottish colonists, particularly those who remained loyal to the crown, carried them into war as well as Scottish units in the British Army.  The dirk evolved from the ballock dagger around 1650 and is generally traced through three stages.

Early Development of Dirk, 1650 – 1700.  It had a wide flat pommel (also called butt of the knife) with a cylindrical wooden grip along with minimal carvings.  There were two small rounded lobes at the base with a long, straight tapered single-edged blade (mostly cut-down from other swords). They averaged from twelve to seventeen inches.  Full Development circa 1700 – 1750. During this period, the dirk evolved into its purest form.  A metal pommel cap (usually silver, brass, iron, or pewter) was added. Metal bands formed around the base and often on the flattened sides of the lobes. The grip was generally carved with intricate, interlaced with Celtic patterns. The long, single-edged blade was still the same length, twelve to seventeen inches.  Reduction to Symbolism, circa 1750 – 1850.  The base lobes were gradually absorbed by the hilt. The pommel was reduced and the handles became shorter and thicker. Colorful stones called ‘cairngorm’ were added to the pommel by 1800.

Small, companion dirks.  Many Scots also included a smaller dirk.  They had a straight knife blade and a dark carved wooden grip, often heather root. In the first half of the 18^th century, they were carried in the sleeve near the arm pit. By the American Revolution and end of the 1700’s, it had acquired the name ‘sgian dubh’ or black knife, and was inserted into the top of the stocking.

Folding Pocket Knives popular among troops during the American Revolution.  Pocket knives have a long rich history, having been found in 1^st century Roman sites. By the early 1700’s, there was little change to their design. With the development of American coastal areas and the frontier moved inland, the custom of wearing belt knives for farmers and tradesmen in ‘civilized’ colonial regions waned. These long knives sheathed along the belt were replaced with folding knives to the point (no pun intended) where they became almost universal accessories.  Specimens have been found from long (ten to twelve inches in length), mainly designed for fighting, to smaller (two to three inches) for utility work and trimming quill pens.

Following photos: (left to right) Ken Gahagan, Woodsrunner, Ken Gahagan, Warhawk Vintage Sales, Woodsrunner.

These knives acquired many titles:  pocket knife, clasp knife, spring knife, folding knife, and jackknife.  These names are self-explanatory except perhaps jackknife.  Jack may be in reference to ‘sea jacks’, associating it with sailors. Another possible origin is from the Scottish dialect using jocketleg (late 1600’s) meaning ‘large clasp-knife.’  By the time of the American Revolution, all these referenced to the folding knife.

We know that pocket knives were widely used by American forces during the Revolutionary War and served many personal needs. Orders from New York, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts listed them as required accessories.  Though there were variations, most were single-bladed (with or without a holding spring) and had a simple metal handle mounted with panels of wood, horn, bone, iron, ivory, or mother-of-pearl.  The multi-accessory blades we find associated with pocket knives of today did not become popular until the 1850’s, however, there are 18^th century specimens that would have been present during the American Revolution that utilized forks, fleam blade (also known as bleeder – a fleam blade about ¼ inch wide – often they were mounted in a small case with various sized bleeders), saws, or heavy needles.

Hunting Trousses  Knife expert and author George Neumann writes: “From the middle ages on, hunters carried a large knife in a broad scabbard with compartments for tools to assist in dismembering game. They persisted into the 18^th century. Somme were very elaborate, and others were relatively simple – as is this German set consisting of a knife, fork, and skewer.  Carried in the leather sheath, they are iron mounted with bone panels bearing religious and floral inscriptions. It is assumed that some of these family trousses saw service in the American Revolution.

Fascine Knives. One of the common cutting tools of colonial soldiers was the fascine knife (also known as brush hook or brush cutter). It was a side arm/tool issued to both American and British light infantry, engineers, and artillery (including German troops). It served both as a personal weapon and as a tool to cut fascines and clear brush when needed. Fascines are bundles of branches and sticks used to reinforce defensive embankments, trenches, and earth ramparts protecting artillery batteries.  They were carried by detached infantry before attacking troops. These bundles filled pits and ditches dug before forts and redoubts allowing the assaulting troops to cross.  Quite a few of these knives have been excavated from Revolutionary War sites indicating their popular usage. Theses knives were often over a foot long, heavy, however most were carefully balanced. The blades were often curved in a loop design and the back blade was not sharpened.

Cuttoe Hunting Knives and Small Swords.  Many large knives which are very similar to small swords were designed in Europe for hunting. In France these hunting swords were called “Couteau de Chasse”. They made their way to America by the mid-eighteenth century and were used by both British and American soldiers. They were also adopted as side arms by sailors and regularly used by Royal Navy officers. The name “Cuttoe”, used to describe these knives and small swords is a bastardisation of their French name by English sailors or Jacks.

Top: Cuttoe Hunting Knife-Sword. American made circa Revolutionary War Period. Photo by Michael M. Alberts Antiques. Bottom Left: Horn Gripped Cuttoe. Replica. Bottom Right: American Cuttoe replica. Photo by Old Dominion Forge.

Notes on the “Bowie Knife”.  As mentioned, large, multi-task knives, direct decedents from the Nordic scramsaxes and carried by colonial pioneers, eventually acquired the name ‘bowie knife’, named for James Bowie who died at the Alamo in 1836. Supposedly, James’ brother Rezin, gave him his first large ‘hunting knife’ in 1827. Three years later, it is reported that James had an Arkansas blacksmith, James Black, fashion him a slightly different knife.  It is this blade that eventually acquired the name ‘bowie’ and subsequently, all large, fighting and general-purpose knives afterwards were called ‘bowie knives’.

The main feature of these knives is the distinct guard or cross guard (also known as a quillon) similar to swords.  The other important distinction is the clip-point design. Clip point blades are distinguished by the forward third of the blade ‘clipped’ off. The clip itself can be straight or concave. The clip point blade design was not unique to America. It dates back to at least the Macedonian period where examples of knapped flint clip point knives were unearthed from the Eneolithic period (also known as the copper age 2500 – 2000 BC).

Want to read more on knifes and weaponry? Check out these Great Books on Amazon by clicking the free preview.

Check out these other articles on Revolutionary War Journal

Colonial Pocket & Folding Knives – History of the Barlow Knife

Tomahawks & Hatches: Part 1 of 3 – Early History of Axes and Battle Axes.

Tomahawks and Hatches: Part 2 of 3 – Trade Axes of America

Tomahawks & Hatches: Part 3 of 3 – Military Use & the American Revolution

Iron Forge in Colonial America by Harry Schenawolf

RESOURCES

Hanson, Charles E. Jr. Quarterly Journal of the Museum of the fur Trade, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Spring 1987).

Minnis, Gordon B.  American Primitive Knives 1770 – 1870. 1983:  Museum Restoration Service, Bloomfield, Ont., Canada.

Neumann, George C.  Swords and Blades of the American Revolution.  1973: Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA.

Neumann, George C.  Battle Weapons of the American Revolution  2011:  Andrew Mowbray Publishers, Inc., Woonsocket, RI.

Peterson, Harold L.  A History of Knives.  1966: Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, NY.

Peterson, Harold L.  American Knives.  1975:  Scribner, New York, NY.

Peterson, Harold L.  Arms and Armor in Colonial America 1526 – 1783.  2000:  Dover Publications, Mineola, NY.

Internet

Hickman, Gene.  “Some Thoughts on Butchers and Other Knives”.  http://www.manuellisaparty.com/articles/butcher_knives.htm

Knife Magazine   “Bleeders”   https://www.knifemagazine.com/glossary/bleeder/

Michael M. Albert Antiques  http://albertsantique.com/swords.htm

Old Dominion Forge  http://www.olddominionforge.com/swords.html

Royal Armouries Collection. https://collections.royalarmouries.org/object/rac-object-152.html

Scavengeology: The study of history through the excavation of discarded items…  “Native American Scalping Knives – the truth, the fiction, the business, the bloody history.” https://scavengeology.com/native-american-scalping-knives-the-truth-the-fiction-the-business-the-blood history/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThese%20scalpers%20are%20of%20the,edge%20suitable%20for%20skinning%20and

Types of Knives Used During the American Revolution:   https://paolomanzi.info/types-of-knives-used-during-the-american-revolution/

Vegard Vike.  “Norwegian Viking Sword Lecture” by Tyr Neilsen.  October 20, 2019.

Woodrunner’s Diary.  Articles on Fascine Knives and Pocket Knives. http://woodsrunnersdiary.blogspot.com/2010/04/fascines-and-fascine-knives.html